Before 1750, the whole of Southeast Asia was sparsely populated; except for large trading cities and in pockets of settlement where intensive wet-rice cultivation was practised.

Population growth was deterred by frequent warfare and raiding, resulting in movement and decimation of the population. The population of Melaka at its peak was estimated at between 100,000 and 190,000. After the takeover of Melaka by the Portuguese, its population never exceeded 30,000 inhabitants.

	Military expeditions
	Pepper cultivation