The language barrier was an impediment during the Malayan campaign during World War II. Not only did it prevent the military command from conducting an effective campaign against the Japanese invasion, but it also led to misunderstanding among soldiers and those in the resistance movement long after the war ended.

Singapore-born and Macau-based bilingual historian Chen Jian @ CC Chin attempts to bridge the communication and perception gaps. This is the second of a three-part series based on an email interview.

James Wong: In Malaysia, many people seem to have forgotten the period or consider that portion of history no longer relevant, but you and other historians like your colleague Karl Hack, Britain's Peter Elphick and Australian veteran journalist Ian Ward have continued to write and publish works from the late 1980s on the subjects of the Malayan campaign, fall of Singapore and Japanese Occupation (1941-1945). Hack, for example, has just published a very expensive but well-researched monograph entitled, ' Did Singapore Have To Fall '? (London, RoutledgeCurzon, 2004). Why? Who still buys and reads this kind of books?

Chen Jian: As historians, we would usually look further into the facts and figures of history and would 'dig' further into the findings that are mostly being ignored or 'forgotten' either because of sensitivity, or because the facts and figures were simply not available at the time of writing of previous books.

And, for reason mentioned before, it is no more a 'taboo' and it is for a time to present a 'new' view based upon a new standpoint in the interpretation. With volumes of more materials and information available or declassified from various countries and locations and, additionally, the availability of the oral historical accounts of veterans and people in the actions, a completely new narrative could be possible now.

Karl Hack and others like Paul Kratoska have put in great efforts in presenting a completely new version of history of the Japanese Occupation of Malaya or Southeast Asia. Generally, it seems that a lot more people have forgotten the bitter period of the history but in actual fact, due to more interesting accounts of the history now available, there are more people taking interest in these narratives, especially the younger generation that has grown up in the peaceful environment. The many smaller wars have reminded these younger persons that the fear of war is real. The experiences of the Japanese Occupation as told by elderly persons within families or friends also have also aroused their interest to look further into the facts of history. It is no doubt that these newer writings would benefit them.

Wong: In the English-language literature on these subjects, the roles played by the Chinese, Malays, Indians and Orang Asli in the resistance are often sidelined or only mentioned in passin. In the Chinese and Malay narratives and discourses, the personal sacrifices made by British and Australian officers and soldiers as individuals, like Britain's 'Z' (Naval) Force commander Admiral Sir Tom Spencer Vaughan Philips are not clearly acknowledged yet. Why? How do historians like you propose to bridge the language gap in order to integrate the fragmentary parts as a whole picture?

Chen: There is no doubt that British and Australian officers and soldiers were trying every means to glorify their efforts, or expressing their hardship and sufferings in Malaya during WWII. And, most of the narratives were done by those who neither had contacts nor real experiences fighting alongside the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA). Their acquaintance with the Chinese, Malays, Indians and Orang Asli was very limited or (there was) none at all. Some of the accounts presented in their stories was hearsay or third-person memories. There was little research or none at all in their books.

Nonetheless, the Communist Party of Malaya (CPM) and MPAJA were not the key issues or main (actors) in their stories. It is therefore understandable that the British or the Australian who had survived found no difficulty to tell their full stories. Likewise, it is the same for the Chinese and Malays in acknowledgment of the British and Australian officers and soldiers in their struggle and sacrifices.

The language barrier is just one of the reasons. The situation mentioned above is (based on) real facts. In fact, there were books written that told the stories of how the different races struggled together in securing survival against Japanese repression. As you have mentioned, a book by Dorothy Thatcher and Robert Cross, ' Refugee from the Japanese ', published in 1993 by the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society told the full stories of a Nona Barker. She was an English woman who had survived the Japanese Occupation with the help of some Chinese employees and later the MPAJA guerrilla unit offered her and her brother (Vincent Baker) safe shelter in the east Pahang area. She was seriously ill and was cared for by female guerrillas till she fully recovered. She in turn led the unit's choir.

A book by Robert Hamond, ' A Fearful Freedom '( published by Leo Cooper, Suffolk, Great Britain, 1984) told the story of Jim Wright, a British soldier who fought the last few days of the battle in Malaya and was wounded in the foot and finally abandoned by his fellow soldiers. He struggled alone for two months and tried to rejoin his comrades in Singapore not knowing that Singapore had fallen. He was picked up by MPAJA at a time when he was dying. He was cured and led to rejoin 25 other British and Australian soldiers left behind the battle front.

A book by British soldier John Cross entitled ' Red Jungle ' (published by Robert Hale & Co, London, 1957) told his own story, about how he had survived during the Japanese Occupation and was sheltered by the MPAJA. None of these books have been translated into Chinese or Malay. Those who do not know English are unable to learn of these stories of the British and Australians who paid high respect to the Chinese and Malays as well as to the MPAJA guerrillas who had seen them through their hardship. For historians, this is evidence of cross-cultural and multi-racial comradeship that is worth mentioning in the narratives. Thus, through translation of the texts, it would bring about a full picture of the parts of history that were very much left out.

Wong: After the fall of Singapore, most of the British and Australian officers and soldiers either strategically retreated to India or Australia or were interned as prisoners of war. It seems therefore that it is only Chinese literature that is detailed, comprehensive, in-depth and informative about what happened during the 44 months of the Occupation. The records not only profile the resistance by Chinese, but also some Malays, Indians and Orang Asli as well as the activities of some British and Australian stragglers and left-behind civilians like Vincent and Nona Baker under the protection and care of the communist underground. Has there been any effort made to translate the Chinese works into English for the moral and intellectual benefit of the wider world?

Chen: It was a shameful retreat of the British in Malaya when confronted by the Japanese army. There were a few left-behind parties such as Spenser Chapman and those who were separated from their companies such as Jim Wright and John Cross as mentioned above. What happened during the 44 months of the Occupation, especially those stories of MPAJA and the volunteere resistance forces formed by the Malays and Indians could only be told by themselves.

There are quite a number of these writings in Chinese but they have rarely been translated into other languages. This language barrier has caused certain misunderstanding among Malaysians. There was also the ideological conflict that barred effective communication. As the MPAJA was led by the CPM, it was therefore taboo to even mention their effort and contribution during the Occupation. During the Emergency (1948-1960), a mere mention of MPAJA would be considered a support for the CPM; in turn, this would mean facing suppression by the British or the Federal or (later) Malayan government.

There is indeed need for translation of works for the moral and intellectual benefit of the wider world. However, without government support for the effort, translation of Chinese works into English would involve tremendous financial burden. Nevertheless, whether there will be any support from civil organisations or international sponsorship for such efforts in the future, is still a hope.

Wong: In some of the Chinese MPAJA memoirs, many Malays, Indians and Orang Asli who operated as partisans are now remembered by their Chinese comrades but only by their Chinese nicknames, pseudonyms and nom de guerre. Is it technically possible now to restore their original names and personal identities?

Chen: As most of the veterans of MPAJA are now old and live in China - although their memories are as vivid as during the days of resistance - it is difficult for them to come back and look for their Malay, Indian or Orang Asli comrades. Either as marks of friendly gesture or circumstantial necessity, their personal identities are only remembered in nicknames, pseudonyms and nom de guerre. It is difficult to locate these comrades and to find out their current identities if they still survive today. May be only a handful of these comrades can still be found and tell the stories. Some of the few are members of the Malayan National Liberation Army's 10th Regiment who live in southern Thailand.

Wong: Many women like Lu Meng@ Lu Chai Ping of the 4th Independent Regiment of MPAJA participated in the resistance movement during the Occupation. She is now remembered because she lived long enough to come back to Kuala Lumpur from China last year to tell her story to a big crowd. But other equally brave and legendary women have been almost totally forgotten. The memoirs of Nona Baker and Sybil Kartigesu, for example, seem to be out of print now and nobody remembers them anymore. What efforts do you propose should be made to do them justice?

Chen: There were hundreds and even thousands of women who were forced into action whether willingly or unwillingly but circumstances determined their fate. Some became communists or MPAJA fighters. Madam Lu Meng @ Lu Cai Ping is certainly one of the survivors who has lived long enough to tell her own story and those of her comrades. Little work has been done to record their brave and legendary endeavours in the resistance efforts.

Few memoirs are available except those by Nona Baker and Sybil Kartigesu which are now out of print. Specific efforts are needed by volunteers or academics in capturing and documenting the historical facts of their sacrifices. In this regard, I must comment that a recent work - ' Life as the River Flows - Women in the Malayan Anti-Colonial Struggle '. This is an oral history of 16 women warriors from Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore, conducted by Agnes Khoo and published by Gerakbudaya Enterprise in Kuala Lumpur, and is a remarkable achievement. In it, there is also an interview with Suriani Abdullah, better known as Ying Meng-Qing. She is currently the only woman CPM CEC member whose survival is a miracle through the years of struggle and hardship.

Wong: In the early 1990s, two well-researched and well-written 'official' history books of the MPAJA in Chinese were published in Hong Kong by the Witness Publishing Company. Later, more personal memoirs and battlefield records were also published like ' A Memoir of the Anti-Japanese Guerilla Warfare in Negeri Sembilan ' (Hong Kong, Nandao Publisher, 1999) by Dan Ruhong (alias Ah Hai or Ah Chen), a CPM CEC member. How accurate, reliable and useful are these accounts for incorporation into a non-ideological war history?

Chen: The Singapore & Malaysia Overseas-Returned Chinese Association had put together in 1991 two volumes of the official accounts of the MPAJA. There are the ' Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army ' and the ' Selected Historical Materials of the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army ', published by the Witness Publishing House in Hong Kong, 1992. The works were a collective effort of some 200 ex-MPAJA veterans ranking from the MPAJA Central Command and political commissars to the rank and file of the eight independent regiments. It had taken four years in total to recollect all events reported. It is by far the most comprehensive account of the anti-Japanese effort.

A few more such memoirs were published in recent years namely, ' The First Independent Regiment of the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army ' by Ah Zhu, Chen Liu and Feng Meng, (un-named publisher, 1992); ' Fight for the Independence ' by Chen Kai (@ Ah He, Du Jia Lin (Nandao Publisher, Hong Kong 1998); and ' A Memoir of the Anti-Japanese Struggle in Penang, Kedah and Perlis' by Chen Kai (Nandao Publisher, Hong Kong, 1999).

There are also ' Malaya's Seventy Years of Storm ' by Nandao Editorial Board (Nandao Publisher, 2000); ' Storm Within the Malayan Communist Party ' by Quan Zhong-Ren (@ Chen Kai Zhang, Ah Da, Malaysian Communist Party CEC member ( Kaonamkorn Tunnel Committee, Haadyai, 1998); ' A Memoir of Forty Years: Life of Jungle Guerilla Warfare ' by Cai Qiu-Zhen (@Dong Miao, Malaysian Communist Party CEC member (published by Betong First Friendship Village, 2000).

There are still other books and articles which may not be easily obtainable due mainly to poor distribution. As all of these memoirs were based mainly on personal recollection through fading memories, they may not be very accurate insofar as numbers, dates and times of events reported. However, memory works in a way that, the further in the depth, the more vivid the recollection. There is no doubt that the drastic encounters have been carved deeply into the minds of the warriors as they were facing a life and death situation. To a certain extent, they are reliable and useful for incorporating into the non-ideological account of war history.

Note: Part 3 will be published on Aug 4

Reconstructing M'sia's WWII history (Part 1)

JAMES WONG WING ON is chief analyst of Strategic Analysis Malaysia. He is a former DAP member of Parliament for Kampar (1990-1995) and a former columnist for the Sin Chew Jit Poh Chinese daily (now Sin Chew Daily). He read political science and economics at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia.